Overview of Business Structures
企业结构概述
Introduction (简介)
When starting a business, one of the most important decisions is choosing the appropriate business structure. This choice has significant implications for liability, taxation, management, and the future of your business.
创业时，最重要的决策之一是选择适当的企业结构。这个选择对责任、税收、管理和企业的未来有重大影响。
企业结构
非公司型企业
公司型企业
个体经营者
合伙企业
公司
Structure Information
Main Factors to Consider (主要考虑因素)
- Purpose, nature, and objectives of the business
- Formalities and establishment costs
- Access to finance and capital
- Management structure and control
- Taxation advantages and disadvantages
- Extent of liability (protection of personal assets)
- Privacy and confidentiality requirements
- 企业的目的、性质和目标
- 手续和设立成本
- 融资和资本获取
- 管理结构和控制权
- 税收优势和劣势
- 责任范围（个人资产保护）
- 隐私和保密要求
Unincorporated Business Structures
非公司型企业结构
Unincorporated Businesses (非公司型企业)
Unincorporated business structures are simpler forms of business organization that do not involve the creation of a separate legal entity. The two main types are sole traders and partnerships.
非公司型企业结构是较为简单的企业组织形式，不涉及创建独立法律实体。主要有两种类型：个体经营者和合伙企业。
Sole Trader
个体经营者
A sole trader is a person carrying on business as an independent individual, who owns and controls the business.
个体经营者是作为独立个体经营业务的人，拥有并控制该企业。
Advantages 优势
- Easy to establish and operate with minimal formalities 设立和经营简单，手续最少
- Full control over the business 对企业拥有完全控制权
- All profits belong to the owner 所有利润归所有者所有
- Privacy and minimal disclosure requirements 隐私保护和最少的信息披露要求
Disadvantages 劣势
- Unlimited personal liability for business debts 对企业债务承担无限个人责任
- Limited access to capital and finance 资本和融资渠道有限
- Business ends with the death of the sole trader 个体经营者死亡时企业终止
- Limited ability to share risks 分担风险的能力有限
Partnership
合伙企业
A partnership exists between persons carrying on a business in common with a view to profit. In Australia, a partnership is generally limited to a maximum of 20 partners.
合伙企业是指两个或多个人共同开展业务以赚取利润。在澳大利亚，合伙企业通常最多可有20名合伙人。
Advantages 优势
- Relatively easy to establish with a partnership agreement 通过合伙协议相对容易建立
- Shared financial resources and expertise 共享财务资源和专业知识
- Shared responsibilities and workload 共享责任和工作量
- Potential for income splitting 收入分配的可能性
Disadvantages 劣势
- Joint and several liability for partnership debts 对合伙企业债务承担连带责任
- Each partner is liable for the actions of other partners 每个合伙人对其他合伙人的行为负责
- Partnership dissolves when partners change 合伙人变更时合伙企业解散
- Potential for disputes between partners 合伙人之间可能产生争议
Key Difference: Legal Identity (关键区别：法律身份)
The most critical distinction between unincorporated and incorporated business structures is the concept of a separate legal entity:
- Unincorporated businesses (sole traders and partnerships) are not separate legal entities from their owners.
- This means the business owners are personally liable for all business debts and obligations.
非公司型企业和公司型企业结构之间最关键的区别是独立法律实体的概念：
- 非公司型企业（个体经营者和合伙企业）与其所有者没有独立的法律身份。
- 这意味着企业所有者个人要对所有企业债务和义务负责。
Incorporated Business Structures
公司型企业结构
Companies (公司)
A company is an association of persons who satisfy the requirements in the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth) for registration. It is a separate legal entity from its shareholders and directors.
公司是满足《2001年公司法》(联邦)注册要求的人员组成的团体。它是一个独立于其股东和董事的法律实体。
Types of Companies (公司类型)
Proprietary (Private) Companies (Pty Ltd)
- Maximum of 50 non-employee shareholders
- Cannot raise funds from the public
- Less regulatory burden than public companies
- Most suitable for small to medium businesses
- Financial secrecy for small proprietary companies
Public Companies (Ltd)
- No limit on the number of shareholders
- May be listed on the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX)
- Can raise funds from the public
- Subject to more extensive financial reporting and disclosure
- Greater regulatory requirements
私人有限公司 (Pty Ltd)
- 最多50名非雇员股东
- 不能从公众筹集资金
- 监管负担比公众公司少
- 最适合中小型企业
- 小型私人公司享有财务保密
公众有限公司 (Ltd)
- 对股东数量没有限制
- 可在澳大利亚证券交易所(ASX)上市
- 可以从公众筹集资金
- 受更广泛的财务报告和披露要求约束
- 更多的监管要求
Other Company Types (其他公司类型)
Limited Companies (Ltd)
A limited company is one where the liability of members is limited to the amount they have invested or guaranteed. This is the most common type of company and includes both proprietary and public companies.
Unlimited Companies
An unlimited company is a corporate entity where the liability of members is not limited - meaning the shareholders are liable for all the debts of the company if it fails.
No Liability Companies (NL)
A specialized type of company used almost exclusively in the mining industry. Shareholders have no liability to pay calls on their shares and can forfeit their shares if they do not pay calls.
有限公司 (Ltd)
有限公司是指成员的责任仅限于他们已投资或担保的金额。这是最常见的公司类型，包括私人有限公司和公众有限公司。
无限公司
无限公司是一种成员责任不受限制的公司实体 - 这意味着，如果公司失败，股东对公司的所有债务负责。
无责任公司 (NL)
一种几乎专门用于采矿业的专业公司类型。股东没有义务支付股份催缴，如果不支付催缴，可以放弃他们的股份。
Key Features of Companies (公司的主要特点)
- Separate Legal Entity: A company exists as a separate legal entity from its owners and controllers
- Limited Liability: Shareholders' liability is limited to the amount they have invested
- Perpetual Succession: A company continues to exist regardless of changes in ownership
- Corporate Tax Rate: Companies are taxed at a flat rate
- Management Structure: Management is separated from ownership (shareholders elect directors)
- Regulatory Compliance: Subject to the requirements of the Corporations Act 2001 (Cth)
- 独立法律实体： 公司作为一个独立于其所有者和控制者的法律实体存在
- 有限责任： 股东的责任仅限于他们已投资的金额
- 永久存续： 公司继续存在，无论所有权如何变化
- 公司税率： 公司按统一税率纳税
- 管理结构： 管理与所有权分离（股东选举董事）
- 监管合规： 受《2001年公司法》(联邦)要求的约束
Advantages of Companies (公司的优势)
- Limited liability protection for shareholders
- Enhanced ability to raise capital
- Perpetual existence independent of owners
- Potential tax advantages
- Professional image and credibility
- Ownership is easily transferable through share transfers
- 为股东提供有限责任保护
- 提高筹集资金的能力
- 独立于所有者的永久存在
- 潜在的税收优势
- 专业形象和可信度
- 所有权可通过股份转让轻松转移
Disadvantages of Companies (公司的劣势)
- More complex and costly to establish and maintain
- Greater regulatory compliance requirements
- Less privacy due to public reporting requirements
- Complex taxation arrangements
- Potential for double taxation (company and dividend tax)
- Personal guarantees may still be required for new companies
- 设立和维护更复杂且成本更高
- 更多的监管合规要求
- 由于公共报告要求，隐私较少
- 复杂的税收安排
- 潜在的双重征税（公司税和股息税）
- 新公司可能仍需要个人担保
The Concept of Separate Legal Entity
独立法律实体的概念
Separate Legal Entity (独立法律实体)
A fundamental principle of company law is that upon incorporation, a company becomes a separate legal entity, distinct from its shareholders, directors, and officers. This principle was established in the landmark case of Salomon v Salomon & Co Ltd [1897].
公司法的一个基本原则是，公司在注册成立后成为一个独立的法律实体，与其股东、董事和高管不同。这一原则是在具有里程碑意义的Salomon v Salomon & Co Ltd [1897]案例中确立的。
Legal Characteristics (法律特征)
As a separate legal entity, a company:
- Can enter into contracts in its own name
- Can sue and be sued in its own name
- Can own, acquire, and dispose of property
- Continues to exist despite changes in its membership (perpetual succession)
- Is liable for its own debts and obligations
- Can limit the liability of its members
作为独立法律实体，公司：
- 可以以自己的名义签订合同
- 可以以自己的名义起诉和被起诉
- 可以拥有、获取和处置财产
- 尽管成员发生变化，但继续存在（永久存续）
- 对自身的债务和义务负责
- 可以限制其成员的责任
Practical Example (实际例子)
Scenario: A company borrows $50,000 from a bank to purchase equipment.
- Unincorporated business: The owner would be personally liable for repaying the loan.
- Company: The company itself is responsible for repaying the loan. If the company cannot pay, the shareholders generally lose only their investment, not their personal assets (subject to exceptions).
场景： 一家公司从银行借款5万澳元购买设备。
- 非公司型企业： 所有者将个人负责偿还贷款。
- 公司： 公司本身负责偿还贷款。如果公司无法支付，股东通常只会损失他们的投资，而不是他们的个人资产（但有例外情况）。
The Corporate Veil
公司面纱
The Corporate Veil (公司面纱)
The "corporate veil" is a legal metaphor that describes the separation between a company and its members. It is the artificial screen that separates the legal identity of a company from its shareholders and directors.
"公司面纱"是一个法律隐喻，描述了公司与其成员之间的分离。它是将公司的法律身份与其股东和董事分开的人为屏障。
Lifting the Corporate Veil (揭开公司面纱)
"Lifting" or "piercing" the corporate veil refers to the circumstances in which courts will look behind the corporate structure and hold the shareholders or directors personally liable for the company's actions or debts.
Courts may lift the corporate veil in exceptional circumstances, such as:
- Fraud or improper conduct
- Attempts to evade legal obligations
- Where the company is a mere façade or sham
- In the interests of justice
- Where required by statute
"揭开"或"刺穿"公司面纱是指法院会在某些情况下看穿公司结构，让股东或董事个人对公司的行为或债务负责。
法院可能在以下特殊情况下揭开公司面纱：
- 欺诈或不当行为
- 试图逃避法律义务
- 公司只是一个表面或虚假实体
- 为了公正
- 法规要求时
Effects of Lifting the Corporate Veil (揭开公司面纱的效果)
- The separate legal entity principle is disregarded
- Shareholders or directors may be held personally liable for company debts
- Personal assets of shareholders or directors may be at risk
- The limited liability protection is lost
- 独立法律实体原则被忽略
- 股东或董事可能要对公司债务承担个人责任
- 股东或董事的个人资产可能面临风险
- 有限责任保护丧失
Landmark Case Law
具有里程碑意义的判例法
Salomon v Salomon & Co Ltd [1897] AC 22
Facts: Mr. Salomon ran a boot manufacturing business as a sole trader. He formed a company, Salomon & Co Ltd, and sold his business to the company. He was the major shareholder, a director, and also a secured creditor of the company. When the company failed, the value of its assets was insufficient to pay both Mr. Salomon as a secured creditor and the company's other unsecured creditors.
Issue: Whether Mr. Salomon was personally liable for the debts of the company, or whether the company was a separate legal entity.
Held: The House of Lords held that a company, once incorporated, is a separate legal entity distinct from its shareholders, even if one shareholder holds virtually all the shares and controls the company. Mr. Salomon was not liable for the company's debts. His status as a secured creditor was valid and took priority over unsecured creditors.
Significance: This case established the fundamental principle that a company is a separate legal entity from its members, which remains a cornerstone of company law today.
事实： Salomon先生作为个体经营者经营制靴业务。他成立了Salomon & Co Ltd公司，并将他的业务卖给了该公司。他是主要股东、董事，也是公司的有担保债权人。当公司失败时，其资产价值不足以同时支付Salomon先生作为有担保债权人和公司的其他无担保债权人。
争议点： Salomon先生是否个人对公司债务负责，或者公司是否为独立的法律实体。
判决： 上议院认为，公司一旦注册成立，就是一个独立于其股东的法律实体，即使一个股东持有几乎所有股份并控制公司。Salomon先生不对公司债务负责。他作为有担保债权人的地位是有效的，并优先于无担保债权人。
意义： 该案确立了公司是独立于其成员的法律实体这一基本原则，这一原则至今仍然是公司法的基石。
Gilford Motor Co Ltd v Horne [1933] Ch 935
Facts: Mr. Horne was a former employee of Gilford Motor Company who had signed an employment contract containing a clause preventing him from soliciting the company's customers after leaving. After leaving Gilford, Horne formed a company and began soliciting Gilford's customers through this new company.
Issue: Whether the formation of the company was merely a device to avoid Horne's contractual obligations.
Held: The court held that the company was a "mere cloak or sham" formed to enable Horne to evade his contractual obligations. The court issued an injunction against both Horne and his company, effectively lifting the corporate veil.
Significance: This case established that the courts may lift the corporate veil when a company is formed as a mere façade or device to evade existing legal obligations.
事实： Horne先生是Gilford汽车公司的前雇员，他签署了一份雇佣合同，其中包含一项条款，禁止他在离职后招揽公司的客户。离开Gilford后，Horne成立了一家公司，并开始通过这家新公司招揽Gilford的客户。
争议点： 公司的成立是否仅仅是为了避免Horne的合同义务的工具。
判决： 法院认为，该公司只是一个"外壳或伪装"，成立的目的是使Horne能够逃避合同义务。法院对Horne和他的公司发出禁令，有效地揭开了公司面纱。
意义： 该案确立了当公司被成立为逃避现有法律义务的表面形式或工具时，法院可以揭开公司面纱。